I have a perhaps helpful reflection that I know I am not the first to have made:
Digitalization and computer systems lend themselves to centralized decisions, and this was the most aggressive charge leveraged against computerization in the 1960s and 1970s. The Skolverket might, for instance, decide to create an application service for high school for 14 year olds to facilitate the administration of applications under the fria skolval. However, what ends up happening is that parents and kids turn to teachers with questions about the interface and application process, in spite of teachers being far away both from the process of designing the interface and not being responsible for the application process either.
So while for Skolverket the centralized system for applications under the fria skolval is indeed a time-saver that enables efficiency, for the individual teachers it becomes a time-hog since they have to spend time explaining to individual students/parents systems that they are not well-placed to understand or explain. It sub-optimizes by creating an easily measurable “central” advantage that translates into a more difficult to measure “decentral” disadvantage (see also @nadia 's 4th principle here: 5 New Principles for Justice in the age of AI (and other networked technologies)? - #3 by nadia )
I think there has been research on this at Linköping university, by Elin Wihlborg: Elin Wihlborg - Linköping University